Interface Engineering of Lithium Metal Anodes Using Atomic Layer Deposition

Passivation of lithium metal is of significant interest to the battery community: as the lightest and most electropositive alkali metal, lithium has a low density, resulting in an extremely high specific capacity value of 3.86Ah/g and energy density of 11,701Wh/kg, making it the holy grail of battery anodes.  However, due to the extreme reactivity of lithium metal surfaces, controlled passivation and characterization is extremely difficult.

We have developed a bespoke integrated deposition, transfer, and characterization system capable of coating lithium metal anodes using Atomic layer deposition (ALD), characterizing the surface chemistry using XPS/SEM/UPS/Auger spectroscopy, and transfer directly from UHV into an Ar glovebox for battery assembly, disassembly, and electrochemical testing.  After testing, the metal anodes can be transferred directly back to the XPS/SEM/UPS/Auger system for characterization. 

Passivation coatings for lithium metal require the coatings be conformal, easily deposited at low temperature, and stable against organic electrolytes.  Preventing direct contact of the lithium metal surface with the electrolyte and any dissolved species that would ordinarily react will ensure that the lithium atoms are oxidized in a reversible manner, rather than losing ions/electrons to highly stable, low ionic conductivity surface species such as Li₂CO₃.  Lithium metal passivation may allow the relaxation of purity requirements for both electrolytes and, in the case of Li-O₂batteries, cathode gas purity.

To date, Li metal passivation has been demonstrated with coatings of chlorosilanes[1] and other polymeric[2], organic[3], and inorganic coatings, but ALD has not been applied directly to lithium metal anodes for the purposes of passivation.  Known for conformality, low temperature deposition, excellent thickness control, and pinhole free films, ALD is a promising technique for this application.

We have developed ALD processes suitable for the passivation of Li metal, and we assess the behavior of these functional ALD coatings electrochemically using CV and EIS electrochemical techniques. Surface characterization by in-situ XPS, FTIR, and Raman spectroscopy of passivated and pristine lithium metal subjected to both gaseous environments and electrolytes with controlled/measured H₂O content will be discussed, where the surface characterization is accomplished without ambient air exposure.

We show that passivation of lithium metal is not only possible with ALD, but that it is effective at preventing the tarnishing of the lithium metal surface due to reaction with atmospheric H₂O and CO₂.  Using our unique capabilities, we are able to probe the chemistry of both passivated and unpassivated lithium metal, while using in-situgas dosing we can decouple and characterize the interface chemistry and reactions.

This work has implications beyond the passivation of lithium metal besides its focus and greatest impact on the metallic lithium anode battery systems Li-O₂ and Li-S. The methodology can greatly impact other promising metal anode battery systems such as magnesium and sodium anode batteries, where similar deleterious surface reactions may apply.  Fundamental understanding of the controlled surface passivation of lithium by ALD coatings could be extended to these other next-generation metal anode battery systems, and indeed could have a beneficial impact on the cyclability and storage lifetimes of lithium metal anode primary batteries.

References:

[1]       F. Marchioni, K. Star, E. Menke, T. Buffeteau, L. Servant, B. Dunn, and F. Wudl, “Protection of Lithium Metal Surfaces Using Chlorosilanes,” Langmuir, vol. 23, no. 23, pp. 11597–11602, Nov. 2007.

[2]       S. M. Choi, I. S. Kang, Y.-K. Sun, J.-H. Song, S.-M. Chung, and D.-W. Kim, “Cycling Characteristics of Lithium Metal Batteries Assembled with a Surface Modified Lithium Electrode,” J Power Sources, vol. 244, no. c, pp. 363–368, Dec. 2013.

[3]       J. Heine, S. Krüger, C. Hartnig, U. Wietelmann, M. Winter, and P. Bieker, “Coated Lithium Powder (CLiP) Electrodes for Lithium-Metal Batteries,” Adv. Energy Mater., pp. 1–7, Nov. 2013.