Aqueous Zn-ion batteries has attracted great attention in recent years, as a promising candidate for grid energy storage applications. An aqueous system offers intrinsic safety, high ionic conductivity contributing improved power capability and raw materials that are more earth abundant and environment friendly. Numerous promising reports haven been focusing on the Zn/MnO₂ system owing to its low cost, moderate discharge potentials and with improved reversibility in the mild aqueous electrolyte. However, many questions remain unanswered regarding its reaction mechanism. The different reaction mechanisms including Zn⁺² insertion, H⁺ insertion, chemical conversion reaction including the combined intercalation and conversion reaction mechanism, and the dissolution-deposition of the manganese oxide.

In this work, we aim to unravel the reaction mechanism by a systematic multimodal synchrotron characterization. This work discusses the galvano-static charge-discharge process of aqueous Zn-MnO₂ batteries using operando measurements, which provides us with a direct insight into the phenomenon and can be directly correlated to the battery's electrochemical response. The multimodal techniques include operando X-ray diffraction to study the structural phase change of the cathode active material, operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy to probe the local structure changes and transmission X-ray microscopy studies to observe the key morphological events. Overall, this multimodal approach gives us an insight into the reaction mechanism enabling us to better design Zn-MnO₂ batteries for practical applications.