Higher power and charging rates are essential for large scale adoption of lithium-ion batteries in transportation applications. While lithium-ion batteries are ubiquitous in portable electronics, their performance and lifetime suffer during high rate charging and high power discharging. In such extreme electrochemical conditions, the mechanical response of electrode materials governs their degradation behavior. Here, we present a new technique to probe the electrochemically-induced mechanics of electrodes by calculating the electrochemical stiffness of electrodes via coordinated in situ stress and strain measurements.  Through the electrochemical stiffness, we elucidate inherent and rate-dependent mechanical responses of graphitic battery electrodes. We find that stress and strain are asynchronous as shown in the figure.  In particular, stress development is found to lead strain development as different graphite-lithium intercalation compounds are formed. Additionally, our analysis reveals inversely scaled rate-dependent behaviors for stress and strain responses. Stress scales as scan rate while strain scales with charge (or, equivalently, capacity).  These measurements provide a new paradigm for understanding mechanical effects in intercalation systems, such as batteries.  Stress arises as resistance to lithiation, while strain arises as a consequence of lithiation.  Electrochemical stiffness measurements provide new insights into the origin of the rate-dependent chemo-mechanical degradations, and provide a probe to evaluate advanced battery electrodes.

Electrochemical stress measurements are also utilized to interrogate diverse processes in Li ion battery materials, among them the response of Sn materials to lithiation and delithiation.